Neurons in the monkey frontopolar cortex encode learning stage and goal during a fast learning task.

The frontopolar cortex (FPC) is, to date, one of the least understood regions of the prefrontal cortex. The current understanding of its function suggests that it plays a role in the control of exploratory behaviors by coordinating the activities of other prefrontal cortex areas involved in decision-making and exploiting actions based on their outcomes. Based on this hypothesis, FPC would drive fast-learning processes through a valuation of the different alternatives. In our study, we used a modified version of a well-known paradigm, the object-in-place (OIP) task, to test this hypothesis in electrophysiology. This paradigm is designed to maximize learning, enabling monkeys to learn in one trial, which is an ability specifically impaired after a lesion of the FPC. We showed that FPC neurons presented an extremely specific pattern of activity by representing the learning stage, exploration versus exploitation, and the goal of the action. However, our results do not support the hypothesis that neurons in the frontal pole compute an evaluation of different alternatives. Indeed, the position of the chosen target was strongly encoded at its acquisition, but the position of the unchosen target was not. Once learned, this representation was also found at the problem presentation, suggesting a monitoring activity of the synthetic goal preceding its acquisition. Our results highlight important features of FPC neurons in fast-learning processes without confirming their role in the disengagement of cognitive control from the current goals.

Social monitoring of actions in the macaque frontopolar cortex.

The frontopolar cortex (FPC) of primates appeared as a main innovation in the evolution of anthropoid primates and it has been placed at the top of the prefrontal hierarchy. The only study to date that investigated the activity of FPC neurons in monkeys performing a cognitive task suggested that these cells were involved in the monitoring of self-generated actions. We recorded the activity of neurons in the FPCs of two rhesus monkeys while they performed a social variant of a nonmatch-to-goal task that required monitoring the actions of a human or computer agent. We discovered that the role of FPC neurons extends beyond self-generated actions to include monitoring others' actions. Their monitoring activity was very specific. First, neurons in the FPC encoded the spatial position of the target but not its object features. Second, a dedicated representation of the human agent actions was tied to the time of target acquisition, while it was reduced or absent in the successive epochs of the trial. Finally, this other-specific neural substrate did not emerge during the interaction with a virtual agent such as the computer. These results provide a new perspective on the functions of a uniquely primate brain area, suggesting that FPC might play an important role in social behaviors.

Correction: Cutuli et al. Neuroprotective Role of Dietary Supplementation with Omega-3 Fatty Acids in the Presence of Basal Forebrain Cholinergic Neurons Degeneration in Aged Mice. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1741.

The authors wish to make the following corrections to this paper [...].

n-3 PUFA Improve Emotion and Cognition during Menopause: A Systematic Review.

Women show an increased risk of cognitive impairment and emotional disorders, such as anxiety and depression, when approaching menopause. Data on risk and protection factors have yielded robust evidence on the effects of lifestyle factors, such as diet, in preserving emotional and cognitive functioning. This review focused on the effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) on anxiety, depression, and cognition during the menopausal transition. This systematic review considered all articles published until 31 December 2021, and the search was performed on two databases, PubMed and Scopus. The fields of interest were "menopause", "n-3 PUFA" and "emotional and cognitive aspects". Out of the 361 articles found on PubMed and 283 on Scopus, 17 met inclusion criteria. They encompassed 11 human and 6 animal studies. Most studies reported relieved depressive symptoms in relation to n-3 PUFA intake. While controversial results were found on anxiety and cognition in humans, n-3 PUFA consistently reduced anxiety symptoms and improved cognition in animal studies. Taken together, n-3 PUFA intake shows beneficial effects on emotional and cognitive behaviours during menopause transition. However, further investigations could increase knowledge about the effectiveness of n-3 PUFA on psychological well-being in this delicate period of feminine life.

Macaque monkeys learn and perform a non-match-to-goal task using an automated home cage training procedure.

In neurophysiology, nonhuman primates represent an important model for studying the brain. Typically, monkeys are moved from their home cage to an experimental room daily, where they sit in a primate chair and interact with electronic devices. Refining this procedure would make the researchers' work easier and improve the animals' welfare. To address this issue, we used home-cage training to train two macaque monkeys in a non-match-to-goal task, where each trial required a switch from the choice made in the previous trial to obtain a reward. The monkeys were tested in two versions of the task, one in which they acted as the agent in every trial and one in which some trials were completed by a "ghost agent". We evaluated their involvement in terms of their performance and their interaction with the apparatus. Both monkeys were able to maintain a constant involvement in the task with good, stable performance within sessions in both versions of the task. Our study confirms the feasibility of home-cage training and demonstrates that even with challenging tasks, monkeys can complete a large number of trials at a high performance level, which is a prerequisite for electrophysiological studies of monkey behavior.

Behavioral, neuromorphological, and neurobiochemical effects induced by omega-3 fatty acids following basal forebrain cholinergic depletion in aged mice.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, mechanistic, epidemiologic, and interventional studies have indicated beneficial effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) against brain aging and age-related cognitive decline, with the most consistent effects against Alzheimer's disease (AD) confined especially in the early or prodromal stages of the pathology. In the present study, we investigated the action of n-3 PUFA supplementation on behavioral performances and hippocampal neurogenesis, volume, and astrogliosis in aged mice subjected to a selective depletion of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. Such a lesion represents a valuable model to mimic one of the most reliable hallmarks of early AD neuropathology. METHODS: Aged mice first underwent mu-p75-saporin immunotoxin intraventricular lesions to obtain a massive cholinergic depletion and then were orally supplemented with n-3 PUFA or olive oil (as isocaloric control) for 8 weeks. Four weeks after the beginning of the dietary supplementation, anxiety levels as well as mnesic, social, and depressive-like behaviors were evaluated. Subsequently, hippocampal morphological and biochemical analyses and n-3 PUFA brain quantification were carried out. RESULTS: The n-3 PUFA treatment regulated the anxiety alterations and reverted the novelty recognition memory impairment induced by the cholinergic depletion in aged mice. Moreover, n-3 PUFA preserved hippocampal volume, enhanced neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus, and reduced astrogliosis in the hippocampus. Brain levels of n-3 PUFA were positively related to mnesic abilities. CONCLUSIONS: The demonstration that n-3 PUFA are able to counteract behavioral deficits and hippocampal neurodegeneration in cholinergically depleted aged mice promotes their use as a low-cost, safe nutraceutical tool to improve life quality at old age, even in the presence of first stages of AD.

Neuroprotective Role of Dietary Supplementation with Omega-3 Fatty Acids in the Presence of Basal Forebrain Cholinergic Neurons Degeneration in Aged Mice.

As major components of neuronal membranes, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) exhibit a wide range of regulatory functions. Recent human and animal studies indicate that n-3 PUFA may exert beneficial effects on aging processes. Here we analyzed the neuroprotective influence of n-3 PUFA supplementation on behavioral deficits, hippocampal neurogenesis, volume loss, and astrogliosis in aged mice that underwent a selective depletion of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. Such a lesion represents a valid model to mimic a key component of the cognitive deficits associated with dementia. Aged mice were supplemented with n-3 PUFA or olive oil (as isocaloric control) for 8 weeks and then cholinergically depleted with mu-p75-saporin immunotoxin. Two weeks after lesioning, mice were behaviorally tested to assess anxious, motivational, social, mnesic, and depressive-like behaviors. Subsequently, morphological and biochemical analyses were performed. In lesioned aged mice the n-3 PUFA pre-treatment preserved explorative skills and associative retention memory, enhanced neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus, and reduced volume and VAChT levels loss as well as astrogliosis in hippocampus. The present findings demonstrating that n-3 PUFA supplementation before cholinergic depletion can counteract behavioral deficits and hippocampal neurodegeneration in aged mice advance a low-cost, non-invasive preventive tool to enhance life quality during aging.

The Role of Physical Exercise and Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Depressive Illness in the Elderly.

BACKGROUND: In adulthood, depression is the most common type of mental illness and will be the second leading cause of disease by 2020. Major depression dramatically affects the function of the central nervous system and degrades the quality of life, especially in old age. Several mechanisms underlie the pathophysiology of depressive illness, since it has a multifactorial etiology. Human and animal studies have demonstrated that depression is mainly associated with imbalances in neurotransmitters and neurotrophins, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis alterations, brain volume changes, neurogenesis dysfunction, and dysregulation of inflammatory pathways. Also the gut microbiota may influence mental health outcomes. Although depression is not a consequence of normal aging, depressive disorders are common in later life, even if often undiagnosed or mis-diagnosed in old age. When untreated, depression reduces life expectancy, worsens medical illnesses, enhances health care costs and is the primary cause of suicide among older people. To date, the underpinnings of depression in the elderly are still to be understood, and the pharmacological treatment is the most commonly used therapy. OBJECTIVE: Since a sedentary lifestyle and poor eating habits have recently emerged as crucial contributors to the genesis and course of depression, in the present review, we have focused on the effects of physical activity and omega-3 fatty acids on depressive illness in the elderly. RESULTS: A growing literature indicates that both exercise and dietary interventions can promote mental health throughout one's lifespan. CONCLUSION: There thus emerges the awareness that an active lifestyle and a balanced diet may constitute valid low-cost prevention strategies to counteract depressive illness in the elderly.